Introduction
Translation studies was to
undertake linguistics as its inauguration. This approach proliferates itself
with time as an independent one, yet language’s manners of analysis and tools
of conceptualisation are frequently summoned to this framework. Having several
linguistic theories superseded such as grammar-translation methods as well as
various pure structuralist streams, translation was upgraded to be an
intercultural communication instrument. Verily, that alteration in terms of definition
was owing to the functionalist and communicative approaches (Karl Buhler 1879-1963).
These were the basis of numerous modern
translation theories towards which we will be heading in this essay.
Katharina Reiss’s Introductory Approach towards ‘’Textsorte’’ (Text Type)
The German
translator and linguist was to make a pillar out of psychologist and linguist
Buhler´s language functions. Buhler has psychologically and linguistically analysed
what purposes people are trying to achieve by using language. Hence, he could
formulate the following functions.
Ø The
informative function:
It is a content-based function which means it is when the sender is trying to get
a set of facts known to the receiver.
*Ex: A touristic booklet.
Ø The
expressive function:
The utterer seeks to use a certain linguistic structure – Often aesthetically
based – without which his voice shall not reach the receivers as intended.
*Ex: Poems.
Ø The
operative function:
As it primarily indicates, it is when one is aiming to have others act upon
what he said. In other words, it is an appeal or allure to have the hearers
persuaded.
*Ex: Written or voiced electoral campaigns.
Ø
The audio-medial function: This case is when the functions above
are merged, having language used for multiple purposes. One might want to start
by informing and expressing himself to the hearer, ending up by aiming to
persuade him.
*Ex: Music-based advertisements.
For her
part, Reiss asserts that translation should be in accordance with those
functions. Taking that if the author of the ST aims to fulfil a function,
then the translator should have the same function preserved. Accordingly, Reiss
illustrates a set of linguistic and non-linguistic components. On the one hand,
TT should follow the semantic equivalence, lexical one, and grammatical and
stylistic features. On the other, non-linguistic conditions overlap between situation,
field, spacetime, sender, receiver, and implication. To illustrate, we shall
draw the relations as follows.
Initially, Reiss assigned each text genre to a translation method. In contradiction to some translation theories that favour a translation method over another, Reiss stated that the methods of translation do vary in accordance with the genre of the ST.
Mary Snell-Hornby’s Integrated Approach
Similarly,
Snell-Hornby attempted to fill the gap between different types of translation. The
Viennese teacher and translator based her approach on prototypes, which are a
mode of classification based on a primary model under which various models may
underly. Explaining her integrated approach, she has drawn a horizontal diagram.
The latter was to relate the genres of text into the field of knowledge that
they may require, ending up with a linguistic level on which she considered
phonological conditions as they can be initially to translate mediatic and interactive
audiovisual contents. For a summarised view of Snell-Hornby’s approach consider
the following simplified diagram.
Justa Holz-Manttari’s Translation Action Theory
The Finnish-German
scholar has based her translation approach on the theory of action and
communication. The former theory was reflected in her view of translation as a purpose-driven
process. Indeed, the action theory envisions motives and rationales as a part
of our actions (Parsons, 1951). Thus, Holz-Manttari portrays that theory on the
motives behind the translator aiming to translate the text and other involved
parties’ roles. As for the communication theory, she coined the term ‘’message
transmitter compounds’’. The latter
alludes to how her translation theory is not about dealing with concrete text genres
or sentences, but rather on how information in a specified cultural framework
or environment may cross to the other in the TT.
Holz-Manttari
was to draw a series of translation roles and players as well as two clear
divisions between content and form. Her translation role players were
introduced by the initiator who needs the translation and the final recipient
who will consume that service. This may be seen clearly as follows.
Considering
her differentiation between content and form, each was assigned an element to
which it may be divided. Verily, the content was split into factual information
– concrete messages – and a general communicative strategy which denotes the
text’s overall communicative function.
Skopos Theory
Reiss and
Vermeer (1984) sought to present a general translation theory based on ‘’Skopos’’.
The latter is the Greek word for ‘’purpose’’ and as may be observed this is of
a relation to Holz-Manttari’s action theory. As Reiss and Vermeer assert, translation
is also an action-based process with a specific outcome. Initially, the two theorists came up with a
couple of rules that can generally govern the translation process as follows.
1. Translation Action
varies in accordance with the skopos (purpose).
2. TT and ST
must be both assembled to their linguistic and cultural contexts.
3. The function
of the TT may differ from the ST’s.
4. The
translation action should be evaluated by internal coherence.
5. The TT must resemble
the ST in overall coherence.
6. The previous
rules are to be considered hierarchically.
In general
functional adequacy, two main rules were derived. One is labelled as the
coherence rule. It states that the TT
should focus on making sense to the receivers taking their different social and
mental conditions. The other rule ‘’fidelity rule’’ indicates that the TT must
be loyal to the ST. A translator receives the information, must then interpret
it as intended by its issuer, and finally must encode it to the TT recipients.
Christiane Nord’s Text Analysis in Translation
With it seeking to
construct a general theory of translation, Skopos theory was to neglect some micro-segments
in the translation process. Intrasentential, stylistic, and semantic levels
were not given their due. Hence, Nord relies on a similar background to the
Skopos theory’s to proffer a more detailed and comprehensible text analysis.
Nord’s concrete vision
induced two basic types of translation. One that is function-oriented and
another that is communication-oriented (Taking intercultural communication as
its function).
She introduces ‘’documentary
translation’’ as a literary translation mode in which the translator should
retain the ST’s same ideas but with consideration to the TT’s culture. That is because once the TT gets to preserve
only the function of the ST in literary works with no ST cultural insights involved,
reading one’s cultural literature would have a similar implication as reading
another. In other words, the TT here is to serve as a tool for communicating
the ST’s styles, beliefs, etc. in a way that is understood by the TT community.
Thus, communicating ST culture through TT is the function to be highlighted during
this translation model.
Conversely, ‘’instrumental
translation’’ is function-oriented. In this type of translation, we are not
concerned with the ST’s culture, nor is the recipient. The main focus in this
mode is having certain instructions and functions perceived as intended by the
ST. For instance, a user manual in TT should transfer nothing from the ST, but
its functions.
The German scholar elaborated on her approach.
She, consequently, inducted three main functional approaches cementing the
translation procedure as illustrated in the coming diagrams.
Conclusion & Synopsis
In a nutshell, the
functionalist communicative school was of tremendous contribution to the field of
translation studies. As the latter was a mere linguistic phenomenon before
being turned into an intercultural act of communication by that school. Spearheaded
by Reiss and coupled later with Vermeer, translation was to emphasise language
function as a driving factor to the TT’s purpose (Skopos). Successively,
Holz-Manttari with her translatorial action was to incorporate diverse
professional insights into translation. Ended up with Nord who provided a detailed
and relatively objective functional perspective to translation studies.
Bibliography
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Psychology, 77, 674–678. https://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/14251983
Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translation
studies: Theories and Applications. Psychology Press.
Parsons, T., & Shils, E. (1951). Toward a
general theory of action. In Harvard University Press eBooks.
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